TThe Collins English Dictionary de-
fines conflict as “a state of opposi-
tion between ideas and interests.”
Although conflict is an inevitable con-
sequence of human interaction, violent
responses to conflict are neither normal
nor acceptable. In recent years, an
alarming number of secondary school
administrators have reported using
metal detectors to screen their students,
confiscating weapons, or calling law en-
forcement to intervene in student con-
flicts (Robinson, 1997). This has
precipitated a large-scale inquiry into
how to solve the problem of violence in
secondary schools. One solution is to
implement conflict resolution
education that teaches a set of skills
that lend themselves to the nonviolent,
constructive management of conflict
(Gilhooley & Scheuch, 2000).
Unresolved conflicts can lead to poor academic achievement, low self- esteem, feelings of powerlessness, and general behavioral difficulties. However, systematic conflict resolution strategies have been shown to reduce in-school fighting, suspensions, disciplinary referrals, absenteeism, vandalism, and
Unresolved conflicts can lead to poor academic achievement, low self- esteem, feelings of powerlessness, and general behavioral difficulties. However, systematic conflict resolution strategies have been shown to reduce in-school fighting, suspensions, disciplinary referrals, absenteeism, vandalism, and
bullying (Bodine, Crawford, &
Schrumpf, 1994; Jackson & Davis,
2001). Research has shown that the
most popular approach to conflict res-
olution in secondary schools includes a
comprehensive violence reduction pro-
gram that incorporates proactive
strategies, effective intervention
approaches, and systematic collabora-
tion between the schools and the com-
munities they serve (Crawford &
Bodine, 2001). The most effective
approaches to conflict resolution
include instruction in communication
and cooperative problem-solving skills
that are implemented in a climate
where nonviolent approaches to con-
flict resolution are considered standard
operating procedure. School-based
programs may include a combination
of conflict resolution curricula, anger
management skills training, peer medi-
ation, and the development of peace-
able classrooms or schools.
Peer Mediation
Peer mediation is based on the assump- tion that conflicts are simply mutual problems that can be resolved in ways
Peer Mediation
Peer mediation is based on the assump- tion that conflicts are simply mutual problems that can be resolved in ways
that benefit all parties. In secondary
schools, peer mediation is used to help
two or more students resolve serious
conflicts they cannot handle independ-
ently. Peer meditation relies on an
impartial third party, the peer media-
tor, to facilitate the problem-solving
process and help students use advanced
communication, negotiation, and
problem-solving skills to reach a mutu-
ally beneficial resolution (Crawford &
Bodine, 2001). Some programs use
teams of peer mediators who collabo-
rate to facilitate the negotiation process.
Disputes about such issues as jealousy,
the use of personal property, bullying,
rumors, fights, and misunderstandings
among students lend themselves to peer
mediation. Peer mediation may not,
however, be appropriate in situations
where the students have severe emo-
tional problems, have already engaged
in violent acts, or have had unsuccessful
experiences with mediation.
Peer mediation is particularly appro- priate for secondary school because at this stage in their developmental process, students typically rely on their peers for social and emotional support and welcome opportunities to function independently of their parents and teachers. In addition, secondary school students are better able to view prob- lems from the perspective of their peers
Peer mediation is particularly appro- priate for secondary school because at this stage in their developmental process, students typically rely on their peers for social and emotional support and welcome opportunities to function independently of their parents and teachers. In addition, secondary school students are better able to view prob- lems from the perspective of their peers
Mediating a
Better Solution
Peer mediation helps secondary school students become better problemsolvers, decisionmakers, and communicators.
Peer mediation helps secondary school students become better problemsolvers, decisionmakers, and communicators.
COUNSELING
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COUNSELING
101
and can frame disputes in language that
is understood by their classmates.
Expected Outcomes
When peer mediation is employed with- in a larger context of nonviolent conflict resolution, it teaches secondary school students to become more effective prob- lemsolvers, decisionmakers, and com- municators. It helps them improve their perspective-taking skills, increases toler- ance for alternate points of view, and teaches respect for others. It increases communication, problem-solving, and critical thinking skills. In addition, because peer mediation reduces adult intervention in student conflicts, it allows teachers and administrators to focus on teaching instead of discipline.
Peer mediation programs have been shown to positively affect school cli- mate and perceptions of school safety, reduce violent conflict, and drastically limit the number of office referrals and school suspensions for misbehavior. Positive effects have been noted in urban, suburban, and rural settings, among all socioeconomic levels and eth- nic groups, and in both males and females (Crawford & Bodine, 2001).
Expected Outcomes
When peer mediation is employed with- in a larger context of nonviolent conflict resolution, it teaches secondary school students to become more effective prob- lemsolvers, decisionmakers, and com- municators. It helps them improve their perspective-taking skills, increases toler- ance for alternate points of view, and teaches respect for others. It increases communication, problem-solving, and critical thinking skills. In addition, because peer mediation reduces adult intervention in student conflicts, it allows teachers and administrators to focus on teaching instead of discipline.
Peer mediation programs have been shown to positively affect school cli- mate and perceptions of school safety, reduce violent conflict, and drastically limit the number of office referrals and school suspensions for misbehavior. Positive effects have been noted in urban, suburban, and rural settings, among all socioeconomic levels and eth- nic groups, and in both males and females (Crawford & Bodine, 2001).
Finally, if peer mediation is used as a
core component of schoolwide educa-
tion for behavior change, it can lead to
empowerment of the entire school com-
munity and the perception that nonvio-
lent approaches to conflict are the
norm, instead of the exception.
The Peer Mediator:
Selection, Characteristics,
and Responsibilities
A peer mediator is a student who is about the same age or grade level as the students in conflict. Students appear to relate better to mediators who are their own age and are empowered by being able to solve problems without benefit of adult assistance (Myrick, 2002). Mediators are selected on the basis of teachers’ or administrators’ recommen- dations and are carefully screened to ensure that they have both the interper- sonal and cognitive skills to facilitate the negotiation process.
Effective peer mediators must exhib- it mature judgment, leadership abilities, and excellent verbal and nonverbal com- munication skills. Interestingly, although peer mediators enjoy high social status among their peers, they are rarely the highest achieving or best-behaved stu- dents in the school. It is important to note that the peer mediator functions primarily as a facilitator, not as a deci- sionmaker or a judge.
The responsibilities of the peer mediator include monitoring the prob- lem-solving process; maintaining confi- dentiality; and functioning in an unbi- ased, empathetic, and respectful manner to help students work together to solve their problems. Most peer meditation programs require secondary-level peer mediators to complete about 20 hours of initial training in conflict resolution, mediation, negotiation, communica- tion, and collaboration, as well as fre- quent refresher courses in mediation skills. Parental consent should be obtained before students sign up to be peer mediators because training and mediation can involve a substantial investment of time and effort.
The Peer Mediator:
Selection, Characteristics,
and Responsibilities
A peer mediator is a student who is about the same age or grade level as the students in conflict. Students appear to relate better to mediators who are their own age and are empowered by being able to solve problems without benefit of adult assistance (Myrick, 2002). Mediators are selected on the basis of teachers’ or administrators’ recommen- dations and are carefully screened to ensure that they have both the interper- sonal and cognitive skills to facilitate the negotiation process.
Effective peer mediators must exhib- it mature judgment, leadership abilities, and excellent verbal and nonverbal com- munication skills. Interestingly, although peer mediators enjoy high social status among their peers, they are rarely the highest achieving or best-behaved stu- dents in the school. It is important to note that the peer mediator functions primarily as a facilitator, not as a deci- sionmaker or a judge.
The responsibilities of the peer mediator include monitoring the prob- lem-solving process; maintaining confi- dentiality; and functioning in an unbi- ased, empathetic, and respectful manner to help students work together to solve their problems. Most peer meditation programs require secondary-level peer mediators to complete about 20 hours of initial training in conflict resolution, mediation, negotiation, communica- tion, and collaboration, as well as fre- quent refresher courses in mediation skills. Parental consent should be obtained before students sign up to be peer mediators because training and mediation can involve a substantial investment of time and effort.
The Peer Mediation Process
Students may request mediation to help them resolve a dispute or they may be referred by school personnel or families; in either case, participants must engage in mediation voluntarily. Although some students will be resistant to this process, they might be encouraged to participate by such incentives as avoid- ing suspension or other disciplinary action if they agree to mediation. Other means of addressing conflict should be in place for students who refuse media- tion or fail to follow through on their agreement. The resources and materials necessary for peer mediation are mini- mal and include a private room equipped with a small table and chairs, a timer, and writing materials.
Once students agree to mediation, the peer mediator assigned to the case arranges a meeting that is closed to observers. Mediation sessions may be held before school, after school, or during specific periods of the school day that are set aside for this purpose. The mediator records basic informa- tion about the conflict and its resolu- tion and provides these records to the faculty coordinator who monitors the effectiveness of the process. The fol- lowing sequence of steps, derived from Crawford and Bodine (2001), is most representative of peer mediation sessions; however, the process may be modified to suit a particular school or setting.
Open the session. The students involved in the dispute are seated facing each other with the peer mediator between them. Once introductions are made, the peer mediator discusses the purpose, process, and ground rules of peer mediation and then secures a com- mitment from both students to abide by the rules. Ground rules generally include showing respect for others, cooperating, being willing to listen, tak- ing turns speaking, focusing on issues and not persons, and maintaining the confidentiality of the mediation session. Students should be made aware that a record of the mediation session will be
Students may request mediation to help them resolve a dispute or they may be referred by school personnel or families; in either case, participants must engage in mediation voluntarily. Although some students will be resistant to this process, they might be encouraged to participate by such incentives as avoid- ing suspension or other disciplinary action if they agree to mediation. Other means of addressing conflict should be in place for students who refuse media- tion or fail to follow through on their agreement. The resources and materials necessary for peer mediation are mini- mal and include a private room equipped with a small table and chairs, a timer, and writing materials.
Once students agree to mediation, the peer mediator assigned to the case arranges a meeting that is closed to observers. Mediation sessions may be held before school, after school, or during specific periods of the school day that are set aside for this purpose. The mediator records basic informa- tion about the conflict and its resolu- tion and provides these records to the faculty coordinator who monitors the effectiveness of the process. The fol- lowing sequence of steps, derived from Crawford and Bodine (2001), is most representative of peer mediation sessions; however, the process may be modified to suit a particular school or setting.
Open the session. The students involved in the dispute are seated facing each other with the peer mediator between them. Once introductions are made, the peer mediator discusses the purpose, process, and ground rules of peer mediation and then secures a com- mitment from both students to abide by the rules. Ground rules generally include showing respect for others, cooperating, being willing to listen, tak- ing turns speaking, focusing on issues and not persons, and maintaining the confidentiality of the mediation session. Students should be made aware that a record of the mediation session will be
FACTORS RELATED
TO CONFLICT IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS |
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12 PL MARCH 2005
CASE STUDY
|
As the assistant principal for the freshman class in a mid-sized urban high school, you meet with Mrs. Lombardi and Mr. Zacharias, two school coun-
selors who sponsor the school's peer mediation program. They express concern about this year's decrease in requests for the peer mediation
process. They remind you that ninth-grade students have been involved in many low-level peer conflicts and that discipline referrals are mounting. In
previous years, peer mediation has been an effective, proactive intervention tool in the school.
Students who in the past were referred by teachers for mediation are currently sent to the office for disciplinary consequences. Some teachers appear unwilling to allow students to implement the conflict-reducing strategies suggested in peer mediation sessions. Several staff members have summarily refused to allow creative strategies, such as a student asking permission to step out of the classroom to regain composure when tension is mounting within a peer conflict. These staff members argue, "What if every child wanted to step out of the classroom? Then what?" When the counselors show these teachers documents that demonstrate the strategy as part of a mediated solution, they reply, "Who cares!" Observations Persistent attempts to refocus attention on the effectiveness of proactive behavior management interventions can be neglected when teachers juggle competing educational initiatives and may be attracted by the lure of a quick-fix punishment approach to student conflict. School leaders themselves must manage an array of district and school initiatives. However, the most effective way to reduce school violence is to reduce the incidence of initial violent conflicts. Peer mediation is a promising approach to creating a safe school environment and those who facilitate conflict resolution programs may need the active support of school leaders to gain the cooperation of staff members. What to Do School leaders who regularly focus the attention of student and staff members on violence prevention through continued training, communication, and incentives tend to have fewer disciplinary referrals than those who implement only traditional punishment strategies. Effective conflict resolution pro- grams teach problem-solving principles and skills to all students. Systems that spotlight students who contribute to a peaceable school climate by participating in mediations, serving as peer mediators, or interacting peacefully in other ways underscore to your students and staff members the value you place on a safe school environment. School leaders should help their peer mediation committees systematically plan for faculty meetings that at least once a semester showcase school data that track the relationships of student participation in mediation with the rates of further disciplinary actions. Committee members can share rec- ommendations regarding the most effective timing for peer-mediation referrals within the student-conflict cycle. Periodic incentives to recognize staff members' involvement in the student referral process can be as simple as humorous awards, coupons for an extra prep time while administrators teach the class, or access to a desired parking space for a day. Showing regard for staff members who participate in proactive interventions and peaceable school efforts can serve to highlight one of your own professional values, as well as underscore a high priority school initiative. What to Consider
PL MARCH 2005 13
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COUNSELING
101
maintained by the faculty coordinator,
but will not be shared with other staff
members or parents without the per-
mission of the students, except for any
exchange of information needed to
implement the final solution.
Identify the problem and gather information. Students are each given a specified period of time to describe their perception of the problem without interruptions. The peer mediator uses such advanced communication skills as eye contact, summarization, and clarifi- cation to help students state the prob- lem in clear, objective, and unemotional terms. Students are encouraged to view the conflict as a mutual problem and are asked to see the conflict from the perspective of the other person and to repeat, in their own words, what the other person said.
Develop goals and focus on common interests. The peer mediator helps students develop goals for the peer mediation session and asks ques- tions to identify common interests that can be used as the foundation for fur- ther discussion. At this point, students are asked to integrate competing sets of interests and come up with one set of common interests. Students should develop both short- and long-term goals so they can experience success when they reach intermediate goals.
Generate options for solving the problem. Brainstorming techniques are used during this stage to help stu- dents come up with as many solutions to the problem as possible. The focus is on generating a number of options. Students must be firmly discouraged from judging or criticizing another’s ideas, and the peer mediator may
take notes and ask questions for clarification.
Evaluate options and choose a solution. The students systematically evaluate each option and decide on one that best meets their needs or could work with some compromise. The peer mediator verbally summa- rizes the plan and asks students for feedback regarding its potential for
Identify the problem and gather information. Students are each given a specified period of time to describe their perception of the problem without interruptions. The peer mediator uses such advanced communication skills as eye contact, summarization, and clarifi- cation to help students state the prob- lem in clear, objective, and unemotional terms. Students are encouraged to view the conflict as a mutual problem and are asked to see the conflict from the perspective of the other person and to repeat, in their own words, what the other person said.
Develop goals and focus on common interests. The peer mediator helps students develop goals for the peer mediation session and asks ques- tions to identify common interests that can be used as the foundation for fur- ther discussion. At this point, students are asked to integrate competing sets of interests and come up with one set of common interests. Students should develop both short- and long-term goals so they can experience success when they reach intermediate goals.
Generate options for solving the problem. Brainstorming techniques are used during this stage to help stu- dents come up with as many solutions to the problem as possible. The focus is on generating a number of options. Students must be firmly discouraged from judging or criticizing another’s ideas, and the peer mediator may
take notes and ask questions for clarification.
Evaluate options and choose a solution. The students systematically evaluate each option and decide on one that best meets their needs or could work with some compromise. The peer mediator verbally summa- rizes the plan and asks students for feedback regarding its potential for
success. The ideal plan is fair, maxi-
mizes joint benefits, and teaches the
students strategies to solve future con-
flicts constructively.
Develop an agreement and com- mit to it. Students develop a written agreement that includes a timeline, roles and responsibilities, and provi- sions for evaluating the process and is signed by all participants. Additional mediation may be sought as needed and the plan may be renegotiated; however, changes to the original agreement must be agreed to by all participants.
Establishing Peer Mediation Programs in Schools
There are many well-established peer mediation programs that can be adapted to address individual school needs (see resources). These programs
Develop an agreement and com- mit to it. Students develop a written agreement that includes a timeline, roles and responsibilities, and provi- sions for evaluating the process and is signed by all participants. Additional mediation may be sought as needed and the plan may be renegotiated; however, changes to the original agreement must be agreed to by all participants.
Establishing Peer Mediation Programs in Schools
There are many well-established peer mediation programs that can be adapted to address individual school needs (see resources). These programs
typically include guidebooks, training
materials, promotion materials, and
sometimes include trainers or sponsors.
Principals who are interested in estab-
lishing peer mediation programs in
their schools should investigate existing
programs and look for the following
core components that are part of any
successful program:
• A comprehensive needs assessment of school professionals, families, and com- munity agencies.
• A network of peer mediation training organizations (e.g., the community board program in California) for pro- grams, training, or materials.
• A peer mediation program team with a coordinator and trainers of student peer mediators.
• Individuals who have training and experience in managing conflict and who are well respected by both students
• A comprehensive needs assessment of school professionals, families, and com- munity agencies.
• A network of peer mediation training organizations (e.g., the community board program in California) for pro- grams, training, or materials.
• A peer mediation program team with a coordinator and trainers of student peer mediators.
• Individuals who have training and experience in managing conflict and who are well respected by both students
PEER MEDIATION RESOURCES
|
We can work it out: Problem solving through mediation (2nd ed.) S. Glickman and J.
Zimmer. 1993. Washington, DC: National Institute for Citizen Education in the Law.
Conflict resolution and peer mediation programs in elementary and secondary schools: A review of the research. D. Johnson and R. T. Johnson.1996. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 459–506. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED00346543) Don't laugh at me: Creating a ridicule-free classroom. L. P. Roerden. 2000. Cambridge, MA: Educators for Social Responsibility. Peer mediation: Conflict resolution in schools. F. Schrumpf, D. Crawford, & H. Usadel. 1996. Champaign, IL: Research Press. Agencies that provide consultation, training, and materials for secondary schools: Community Board Program, San Francisco, CA. Offers a secondary school curricu- lum for conflict resolution. Phone: 415-552-1250; E-mail: cmbrds@igc.apc.org CRU Institute. Peer mediation program and evaluation forms for secondary schools. Web site: www.cruinstitute.org/pdffiles/secondary.pdf Federal Activities Addressing Violence in Schools. Lists all ongoing and completed projects that address violence around schools; updated semiannually. Phone: 888-231-6405; Web site: www.safeyouth.org/scripts/school/index.asp Oakland Mediation Center, Bloomfield Hills, MI. Phone: 248-338-4280; Web site: www.mediation-omc.org Peace Education Foundation, Miami, FL. Phone: 800-749-8838; Web site: www.peaceducation.com Resolving Conflict Creatively Program, RCCP National Center, New York, NY. Phone: 212-509-0022; Web site: www.esrnational.org/about-rccp.htm/ |
14 PL MARCH 2005
and staff members. Support services
personnel, such as school psychologists
and counselors, are often in ideal posi-
tions to provide leadership in peer
mediation programs.
• An advisory council of parents, school professionals, students; and community members (such as law enforcement officers, after-school program directors, and youth workers). This group reviews the needs assess- ment, works with school staff members to identify appropriate programs, and serves as a sounding board and prob- lem-solving resource throughout the implementation of the program.
• Training sessions and materials for program coordinators, trainers of student peer mediators, and peer mediators.
• Adequate funding and resources to build and maintain the program. Administrators may find grant sources that have pools of funding for peer mediation programs and staff training. • School and community support that is built by including relevant groups in the creation of the program and com- municating about the need for and benefits of the program.
• Public relations materials, such as flyers, advertisements, and program videos.
• Orientation sessions for staff mem- bers and students.
• Scheduled time for participants to plan, evaluate, and share the results of their work.
• An evaluation plan that includes short- and long-term behavioral goals, behavioral outcomes, timelines, evalua- tion criteria, and methods of formative and summative evaluation.
Conclusion
A peer mediation program can serve as an invaluable resource for conflict reso- lution among secondary school stu- dents, particularly if it is part of a larger movement to establish peaceable envi- ronments where nonviolence and com- munication become a way of life, not an afterthought or a reaction to a crisis.
• An advisory council of parents, school professionals, students; and community members (such as law enforcement officers, after-school program directors, and youth workers). This group reviews the needs assess- ment, works with school staff members to identify appropriate programs, and serves as a sounding board and prob- lem-solving resource throughout the implementation of the program.
• Training sessions and materials for program coordinators, trainers of student peer mediators, and peer mediators.
• Adequate funding and resources to build and maintain the program. Administrators may find grant sources that have pools of funding for peer mediation programs and staff training. • School and community support that is built by including relevant groups in the creation of the program and com- municating about the need for and benefits of the program.
• Public relations materials, such as flyers, advertisements, and program videos.
• Orientation sessions for staff mem- bers and students.
• Scheduled time for participants to plan, evaluate, and share the results of their work.
• An evaluation plan that includes short- and long-term behavioral goals, behavioral outcomes, timelines, evalua- tion criteria, and methods of formative and summative evaluation.
Conclusion
A peer mediation program can serve as an invaluable resource for conflict reso- lution among secondary school stu- dents, particularly if it is part of a larger movement to establish peaceable envi- ronments where nonviolence and com- munication become a way of life, not an afterthought or a reaction to a crisis.
Creating a safe, stable school environ-
ment promotes higher academic
achievement and well-being for all stu-
dents and builds greater student con-
nectedness and investment in the school
community. These principles are
emphasized in both the No Child Left
Behind Act and the newly reauthorized
Individuals with Disabilities Education
Act, not simply as a backdrop to aca-
demic goals, but as concrete, measura-
ble objectives directly related to school
accountability. Peer mediation is a field-
tested, highly effective approach that
can help schools meet these standards
and provide outcomes that can be
measured and reported as indicators of
school success. A program’s success,
though, will depend on the principal’s
leadership in building initial support
among staff members, students, and
parents and fostering their continued
commitment to the program. PL
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PL MARCH 2005 15
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